theread.me/_posts/2022-09-15-pahlavi-avestan-intro.md

---
layout: post
title: "Middle Persian & Pahlavi script"
subtitle: "A Tiny Introduction"
date: 2022-09-15 00:00:00
permalink: pahlavi-vendidad-avesta-intro/
categories: language
author: Mahdi
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---

[Middle Persian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Persian), the successor of [Old Persian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Persian) from [Achaemenid Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire), was used by the [Sassanian Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_Empire) of Iran, and is the ancestor of Modern Persian, which is currently the official language of Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan. This language has been written using multiple scripts, including [Pahlavi script](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pahlavi_script), [Manichaean script](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manichaean_script) and [Pazend](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pazend). This blog post is the most brief introduction to Middle Persian using Pahlavi script, a script derived from [imperial Aramaic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic).

This language is written and read right-to-left, however in this blog post because the main body of text is English, the text is aligned on the left-side.

This blog post requires a browser that supports custom fonts, since I am using the [Khusro Pahlavi font](http://avesta.org/iranian-font/pahlavi.html). If you cannot see this blog post properly, a PDF version of this blog post is available [here](/files/Middle Persian & Pahlavi script.pdf).

# Alphabet

There are 14 primary letters in Pahlavi, some of which are used for multiple sounds. First, let's look at each letter of the alphabet individually. The content of this section is derived mostly from {% cite kapadia1953glossary %}.

# <span class='pahlavi'>n</span>

Sound: n, v, r, u, û, o, ô, rarely l

Modern Persian equivalents: ن، و، ر، گاهی ل

Notes: Joins with preceding <span class='pahlavi'>f, gE, s, a, l, Z</span> and <span class='pahlavi'>G</span>, but not with any succeeding letter. Pahlavi words ending with <span class='pahlavi'>t, c, p, k</span> and <span class='pahlavi'>n</span>, can optionally add an extra final <span class='pahlavi'>n</span>.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>n</span> (û): a conjunction, meaning and, or; و.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>nnn</span> (van): a tree, forest, jungle
3. <span class='pahlavi'>kyn</span> (nêvak): good, beautiful, virtuous; نیک. 
4. <span class='pahlavi'>nDXn</span> (nihān): secret, concealed; نهان.
5. <span class='pahlavi'>rpn</span> (vafra): ice, snow, hail, sleet; برف.

# <span class='pahlavi'>f / i</span>

Sound: i, y, e, d, j, g

Modern Persian equivalents: ی، د، ج، گ

Notes:
1. In the body of a word it retains its form <span class='pahlavi'>f</span> before <span class='pahlavi'>n, i, b, k</span> as <span class='pahlavi'>y, I!, __B!, q</span> and <span class='pahlavi'>H!</span>; in all other cases it lapses into <span class='pahlavi'>i</span>.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>f</span> (ê or î): used as an izâfat اضافت to show relation between two words, as possessor and the person or a thing possessed, in which case <span class='pahlavi'>f</span> shows the genitive case.
3. Combines with all preceding letters except <span class='pahlavi'>n,\_ b,\_k,\_t,\_c</span> and with all succeeding letters except <span class='pahlavi'>n,\_ b,\_Ë</span> where it takes the forms <span class='pahlavi'>y, \_\_B!,\_M!</span>.
5. <span class='pahlavi'>f</span> used as the numeral "one" when it follows a substantive, e.g. <span class='pahlavi'>f_aB!</span> (gabrâ-ê) a man; <span class='pahlavi'>f_TlË</span> (mart-ê) a man; مردی.
6. <span class='pahlavi'>i</span> used to represent numeral "one", e.g. <span class='pahlavi'>ZLi</span> (ê-raz): one hundred; یک صد, <span class='pahlavi'>KLi</span> (ê-rag): one thousand; یک هزار.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>N\_gE</span> (dîv): satan, Dev, a demon, an evil spirit; دیو.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>rFnp\_f\_rTXË</span> (mâtar-î-pûsar): mother of the boy; مادرِ پسر.
3. Using izâfat is optional, and when it is dropped, it is necessary that the qualifying adjective or the thing possessed must precede the thing possessed or qualified; e.g. <span class='pahlavi'>rTXË\_rFnp</span> (pûsar mâtar), and it is the rule that a <span class='pahlavi'>Q</span> (zak) or <span class='pahlavi'>fQ</span> (zak-î) is added before the two words, so: <span class='pahlavi'>rTXË\_rFnp\_fQ</span> (zak-î pûsar mâtar)
4. It is also used as a rendering of Avesta relative pronouns <span class='pahlavi'>OvjE</span>, <span class='pahlavi'>WvjE</span>, <span class='pahlavi'>TavjE</span>, who, which and what.

# <span class='pahlavi'>gE / F</span>

Sound: s

Modern Persian equivalent: س 

Notes:
1. The <span class='pahlavi'>gE</span> form of this letter is used when it is the final word of a simple word, or when that simple word is part of a compound word, e.g. <span class='pahlavi'>gEAr</span> (râs), <span class='pahlavi'>gEann</span> (vînâs), <span class='pahlavi'>Rak_gEann</span> (vînâs-kâr)
2. The <span class='pahlavi'>gE</span> form of this letter is also used when before <span class='pahlavi'> B,\_Ë,\_n</span>, e.g. <span class='pahlavi'>t_gE</span> (sût), <span class='pahlavi'>vH_gEA</span> (asmân)
3. The <span class='pahlavi'>gE</span> form of this letter is also used to represent the numerical cipher 40, forty <span class='pahlavi'>J\_\_\_A\_jEc</span> (chêhal); چهل

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>s|rF</span> (srôsh): one who obeys or hears; the name of the angel who protects mankind by night and day against the attacks of the Daevas, and guards the souls of the dead for the first three nights. He may be compared with Gabriel of Semitic mythology, as a principle messenger of God. He is always styled as <span class='pahlavi'>n b|rsA\_=\_s|rF</span> (srôsh-î-ahlôb): holy srosh; metaphorically means "obedience", "humility".; سروش.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>nvjXpF</span> (spâhân): The city of Ispahan, former capital city of Iran; اصفهان.

# <span class='pahlavi'>s</span>

Sound: š (sh)

Modern Persian equivalent: ش

Notes:
1. In Indian manuscripts this letter is generally given as <span class='pahlavi'></span>DE</span>, which can be read as š, dâ, gâ, jâ, yâ, ih.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>ivjX</span> (šûi): a husband; شوی، شوهر.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>nnTFvjX</span> (šôstan): to wash, to cleanse, to purify; شستن.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>anks</span> (šikôh): pomp, grandeur, majesty, dignity; شکوه.

# <span class='pahlavi'>a<span>

Sound: a, â, kh, h

Modern Persian equivalents: آ، خ، ه

Notes:
1. Can be used as a prefix, denoting "not" or negation, e.g. <span class='pahlavi'>gEA_nv</span> (a-vînâs): sinless.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>v</span> (hû): a prefix indicating "good", "well"; opposite of <span class='pahlavi'>sy</span> (dûš) bad
2. <span class='pahlavi'>tËy</span> (hû-mat): good thought
3. <span class='pahlavi'>nvL_Ia</span> (aîrân): the home of the Aryans, the Iran proper; ایران.
4. <span class='pahlavi'>DEnTEa</span> (aêtîh): existence, being; هستی.

# <span class='pahlavi'> B</span>

Sound: b, ê

Modern Persian equivalents: ب، ی

Notes:
1. Can be added to words to mean "one", e.g. <span class='pahlavi'>f_TlË</span> (mart-ê) a man; مردی.
2. Does not combine with any succeeding letter, and only combines with preceding <span class='pahlavi'>i,\_s,\_a,\_r,\_Z</span>.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>nn B</span> (bûn): basis, root, beginning, bottom, foundation, extremity, end, origin; بن.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>En B</span> (bôî): to smell, fragrance , smell, perfume, scent; بو، بوی.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>nTFbM!</span> (ham-bast): bound together, connected together; هم‌بست.
4. <span class='pahlavi'>rTXrb / TXrb</span> (brâtar / brât): brother; برادر.

# <span class='pahlavi'>r</span>

Sound: r, l

Modern Persian equivalents: ر، ل

Notes:
1. Sometimes l is written as <span class='pahlavi'>J</span> to distinguish it from r, specially in Pazend.
2. At the end of some Semitic words it is written as <span class='pahlavi'>O</span>, e.g. <span class='pahlavi'>ODX</span> (akhar).
3. Used as the numerical cypher for number 20 (li = bist); بیست.
4. Used as the first person singular pronoun (li=men): I, me, my, mine; من.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>f|r</span> (rûi): face, feature, countenance; رو، روی.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>ODX_ny|r</span> (levîn-û-âkhar = pêš-pas): more or less, before and after, first to the last; کم و بیش، پیش و پس، اول تا آخر.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>Tl</span> (rat): lord, master, spiritual chief, principal, a Dastur or high priest;
4. <span class='pahlavi'>KR</span> (lagh / ragh): the numerical cypher for 1000; one thousand; هزار.

# <span class='pahlavi'>Z</span>

Sound: z

Modern Persian equivalents: ز

Notes:
1. Does not combine with any preceding letter but combines with all succeeding letters.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>|Z</span> (zan): a woman, a female, a wife; زن. The word is probably from the corresponding زادن or زائيدن (to give birth) from Avesta.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>i^|Z</span> (zand): great, vehement, powerful; زند.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>ajEqnyjz</span> (zîvandakîh): Abstract; life, existence; زندگی.
4. <span class='pahlavi'>RZ</span> (zar): gold; زر.
5. <span class='pahlavi'>kz</span> (zak): A semitic particle, extensively used in Pahlavi and signifying a Demon. Adjective and pronoun singular & plural: that, that one, also used in third personal pronouns: he, she or it, sometimes as a relative pronoun: that, which, who. The word is of frequent occurence and invariably replaces Iranian word <span class='pahlavi'>nv</span> (ân) آن. Also, as explained before, <span class='pahlavi'>kz</span> and <span class='pahlavi'>f_kz</span> are used in the beginning of a genitive construction where the izafat اضافت "<span class='pahlavi'>f</span>" is dropped and the thing possessed or qualified is placed after the possessor or the qualifying adjective, e.g. <span class='pahlavi'>n|rh\_r\_f\_kz</span> (zak-î-li-môrv): my bird.

# <span class='pahlavi'>k</span>

Sound: k, rarely g and y

Modern Persian equivalents: ک، گاهی گ، ی

Notes:
1. Generally used as a sign of past participle at the end of a verb in preterite form, e.g. <span class='pahlavi'>ktnk</span> کرده or <span class='pahlavi'>kTlB</span> برده.
2. It is also used as a diminutive suffix, e.g. <span class='pahlavi'>kR_Fnp</span> (pûsarak) پسرک.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>nnk</span> (kanû): now, at present, yet, still; کنون.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>Tlaktnk</span> (kûtak-khrat): short-witted, foolish, silly; کوته خرد.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>nnTEyk</span> (kînîtan): Denominative verb from <span class='pahlavi'>nyk</span> (kîn) malice; to bear malice to, to take revenge on; کین گرفتن.
4. <span class='pahlavi'>akk</span> (kakâ): a tooth, teeth; Semitic equivalent of <span class='pahlavi'>nvjEy</span> (dandân) دندان.
5. <span class='pahlavi'>Gk</span> (kam): less, little, small, a few, scarce, deficient; کم.
6. <span class='pahlavi'>knvb_ktk</span> (katak-banûk): the mistress of the house, mater-familias. کد بانو.
7. <span class='pahlavi'>wtv_ktk</span> (katak-khûtâi): the master of the house, pater-familias, a chief. کد خدا.

# <span class='pahlavi'>G</span>

Sound: m

Modern Persian equivalents: م

Notes:
1. Does not combine with preceding <span class='pahlavi'>n,\_ B,\_k,\_t\_,\_p,\_c,\_K</span>
2. Even in its combined form, it keeps its full form, and it combines with all succeeding letters except <span class='pahlavi'>K</span>

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>f|_G</span> (mûy): hair; مو، موی.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>E*|_G</span> (mang): a narcotic drug made from hemp-seed, hen-bane, a drug used for abortion, Cannabis Sativa; منگ، بنگ، بنج.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>EnyG</span> (mînôy / mînúg): spiritual, heavenly, invisible, a spirit, a spiritual being; مینو، مینوی.
4. <span class='pahlavi'>nvMajX_G</span> (mâhmân): a guest, a visitor, one who is entertained; as adjective satisfied, pleased, gratified, agreeable, welcome; مهمان.
5. <span class='pahlavi'>nntG</span> (Mitra): the name of an Yazat: Meher Yazad; presiding over light, also over faith, friendship and contracts; مهر.

# <span class='pahlavi'>t</span>

Sound: t, d

Modern Persian equivalents: ت، د

Notes:
1. Does not join any succeeding letter, and does not join with preceding <span class='pahlavi'>n,\_f,\_k,\_t,\_p,\_c,\_K</span>.
2. Always appears whole in any formation.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>nnt</span> (tan): body, person, the corporal body as distinguished from <span class='pahlavi'>prk</span> the spiritual body; تن.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>E^nnt</span> (tanand): a spider, a cobweb; تتنده، تنندو.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>nnTEcnt</span> (tôjîtan): to atone for a sin, to expiate, to undergo punishment, to plunder, to assault; توزیدن.
4. <span class='pahlavi'>rkvbnt</span> (tûbânkar): rich, powerful, able, opulent, competent; توانگر.
5. <span class='pahlavi'>ajEvjfct_nv</span> (khûn-tachišnîh): flowing out of blood.

# <span class='pahlavi'>p</span>

Sound: pa, pha (if initial, also: cha, ja, za)

Modern Persian equivalents: پ، ف (اگر در ابتدا، همچنین: و، چ، ت، ز)

Notes:
1. Appears either as a whole, or as <span class='pahlavi'>P</span> when joining the previous letter.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>nnp</span> (pavan = pa, pat): a semitic particle, used extensive as a preposition with meanings: to, by, from, through, according to, in, into, on, upon, with, among, about, at, for, as, as to, as if. It corresponds to Modern Persian پ، بر. It is the prefix for instrumental &  genetive cases. e.g. <span class='pahlavi'>ODX_nnp</span> (pavan-âkhar = pa-pas): in the end, at last; پا پس.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>TFnp</span> (pûst): the skin, a hide, a covering, a coating; پوست.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>PXnp</span> (frâz): A preposition with the meaning of: forth, further, forthwith, on, upon, above, upwards, aloft, back, down, after, again, opposite, contrary, before, near, forward, together; فراز، فرا.
4. <span class='pahlavi'>E^|Znp</span> (frazand): an offspring, child, son, progeny; فرزند.
5. <span class='pahlavi'>nvGtp</span> (patmân): measure, standard, regulation, moderation, plan, design, rule, proportion, estimate, compact, agreement, (golden) mean, metrical measure; پیمان.


# <span class='pahlavi'>c</span>

Sound: ch, if initial: j, if medial or final: ch, j, z, zh, p, f, v

Modern Persian equivalent: چ، اگر ابتدا: ج، اگر میان یا انتها: چ، ج، ز، ژ، پ، ف، و

Notes:
1. Does not combine with any of the succeeding letters
2. Combines with preceding <span class='pahlavi'>E,\_a,\_r,\_G</span> as <span class='pahlavi'>PE,\_Pl,\_PX,\_PG</span>

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>c</span> (cha): an enclitic particle, meaning: and, also, likewise, even, too, yet, else, always, added to the word it connects; when it follows a word ending in a consonant, the vowel (i) is conveniently added to the consonant, e.g. (nari-cha), (kasi-cha); sometimes the vowel (a) is added to the consonant (hasta-cha).
2. <span class='pahlavi'>E^nc</span> (chand): how much, how many, how long, of what length or duration, some, any indefinite quantity; چند.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>rA_yc</span> (chînâr): the poplar tree, plane tree, the sycamore; چنار.
4. <span class='pahlavi'>DEn_gEc</span> (chûnîh / chêgûnîh): abstract noun from <span class='pahlavi'>n_gEc</span> (chûn): quality, qualification, description, whereabouts, peculiarity; چگونگی = کیفیت.

# <span class='pahlavi'>K</span>

Sound: gh

Modern Persian equivalent: ق

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>KR</span> (lagh / ragh): the numerical cypher for 1000; one thousand; هزار.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>KG</span> (magh): a pit, a hole, a row or line of stones on which a "riman" or "contaminated" person sits successively during the ceremony of purification; مغاک، مغ.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>KG</span> (mogh / magh): a magi, a mobed, one who pratises magism; مغ.
4. <span class='pahlavi'> bDlKa</span> (aghriya / aghrâya): this word is derived from <span class='pahlavi'> B!rKa</span> meaning: top, head, summit, pertaining to top, pertaining to summit, topmost, of the first quality, the principal one.
5. <span class='pahlavi'>nvtKn</span> (vaghtân): a head (of a good being), as opposed to <span class='pahlavi'>rA__Gk</span> (kamâr) head of an evil being.

## Letters mixed

The table below shows how different letters mix together {% cite kapadia1953glossary %}:

![Letter mix table](/img/pahlavi/letter-mix.jpg)

# Phrases & Words

1. <span class='pahlavi'>a_Gvv</span> (Aûhr-mazd): The Supreme Creator, Lord Ormazd, of Zoroastrian philosophy. Formerly read as Anhômâ.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>@</span> (Aharman) اهرمن، اهریمن, is the destructive / evil spirit in Zoroastrianism. The name is traditionally written upside down.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>rDX|rp</span> (frôhâr): the guardian angel or spirit, a spiritual prototype, traditionally <span class='pahlavi'>nvb|r</span> (rûbân) soul, and <span class='pahlavi'>rDX|rp</span> (frôhâr) are quite distinct. Ravan passes the Chinvat Bridge according to his or her deeds in this world, whilst fravashi is the sublime spirit which protects its counterpart in this world as a guardian angle. It is the highest of the five spiritual entities of which the human being is made up (ahu, daena, baodhang, urvan and fravashi). Also written <span class='pahlavi'>sa|rp</span>, <span class='pahlavi'>Ra|rp</span>; فروهر.
4. <span class='pahlavi'>N\_gE</span> (dîv): satan, Dev, a demon, an evil spirit; دیو.
5. <span class='pahlavi'>nvjfPE</span> (yazišn): to worship, part of Zoroastrian sacred texts known as Yasna: a sacrifical prayer with offerings of Hom; یسنا.
6. <span class='pahlavi'>ajEIaRDX</span> (ahlâyîh = aša): abstract noun for (ahlôb) righteous, i.e. truth, righteousness, holiness, sanctity, Asha; آشا.

### The Threefold Path of Asha

The three ethical pillars of Zoroastrianism, mentioned in Yasna Haptaŋhāiti یسنا هفت هات (Y. 35.4) are rendered in Pahlavi as such:

<span class='pahlavi'>nvjfyGv</span> (humînišn): good thought (منش نیک)

<span class='pahlavi'>nvjfnnkv</span> (hukûnišn): good deeds (کنش نیک)

<span class='pahlavi'>nvjfiyv</span> (hugôîšn): good speech (گویش نیک)

Also see [HUMATA HŪXTA HUVARŠTA](https://iranicaonline.org/articles/humata-huxta-huvarsta) for more information.

# Common Persian Names

<span class='pahlavi'>M_AR_DXn</span>: name of the angel of victory, popularly known as Behram Yazat; also the name of the 20th day of the Zoroastrian month, over which Behram Yazat presides; the planet Mars is also known by the same name; بهرام.

<span class='pahlavi'>s|rF</span> (srôsh): one who obeys or hears; the name of the angel who protects mankind by night and day against the attacks of the Daevas, and guards the souls of the dead for the first three nights. He may be compared with Gabriel of Semitic mythology, as a principle messenger of God. He is always styled as <span class='pahlavi'>n b|rsA\_=\_s|rF</span> (srôsh-î-ahlôb): holy srosh; metaphorically means "obedience", "humility"; سروش.

<span class='pahlavi'>n|r_G</span> (Marva): name of the third of the goodly created places by Ahura Mazd according to Vendidad I: the modern "Marv", "Margvan" of the clasics; مرو، مهرو.

<span class='pahlavi'>PFIa_G</span> (mahest): the greatest, the grandest, the highest, the longest; میهن.

<span class='pahlavi'>EnyG</span> (mînôy / mînúg): spiritual, heavenly, invisible, a spirit, a spiritual being; مینو، مینوی.

<span class='pahlavi'>nvLp</span> (frakh / frakho): prosperous, auspicious; فرخ.

<span class='pahlavi'>G_YEajE</span> (yâsmen): a jasmine or jassemine, a kind of flower; یاسمن.

# Additional resources

- [Introduction to Pahlavi by Prods OKTOR SKJÆRVØ](/files/Pahlavi Primer - Prods Oktor Skjaerv.pdf): a great resource with introduction to grammar, a lot of words and full text translations.
- [Avestan Digital Archive](https://ada.geschkult.fu-berlin.de/): a search engine for manuscripts
- [Avesta - Zoroastrian Archives](avesta.org/): has some of the texts and other resources related to Avesta and Zoroastrianism