theread.me/_posts/2022-09-15-pahlavi-avestan-intro.md

---
layout: post
title: "Middle Persian & Pahlavi script"
subtitle: "A Tiny Introduction"
date: 2022-09-15 00:00:00
permalink: middle-persian-pahlavi-script/
categories: language
author: Mahdi
custom_head: <link rel="stylesheet" href="/css/khusro.css"">
---

[Middle Persian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Persian), the successor of
[Old Persian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Persian) from [Achaemenid
Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire), was used by the
[Sassanian Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_Empire) of Iran, and
is the ancestor of Modern Persian, which is currently the official language of
Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan. This language has been written using multiple
scripts, including [Pahlavi
script](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pahlavi_script), [Manichaean
script](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manichaean_script) and
[Pazend](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pazend). This blog post is the most brief
introduction to Middle Persian using Pahlavi script, a script derived from
[imperial Aramaic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic).

This language is written and read right-to-left, however in this blog post
because the main body of text is English, the text is aligned on the left-side.

This blog post requires a browser that supports custom fonts, since I am using
the [Khusro Pahlavi font](http://avesta.org/iranian-font/pahlavi.html). If you
cannot see this blog post properly, a PDF version of this blog post is available
[here](/files/pahlavi/Middle Persian & Pahlavi script.pdf).

# Alphabet

There are 14 primary letters in Pahlavi, some of which are used for multiple
sounds. First, let's look at each letter of the alphabet individually. The
content of this section is derived mostly from {% cite kapadia1953glossary %}.

# <span class='pahlavi'>n</span>

Sound: n, v, r, u, û, o, ô, rarely l

Modern Persian equivalents: ن، و، ر، گاهی ل

Notes: Joins with preceding <span class='pahlavi'>f, gE, s, a, l, Z</span> and
<span class='pahlavi'>G</span>, but not with any succeeding letter. Pahlavi
words ending with <span class='pahlavi'>t, c, p, k</span> and <span
class='pahlavi'>n</span>, can optionally add an extra final <span
class='pahlavi'>n</span>.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>n</span> (û): a conjunction, meaning and, or; و.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>nnn</span> (van): a tree, forest, jungle
3. <span class='pahlavi'>kyn</span> (nêvak): good, beautiful, virtuous; نیک. 
4. <span class='pahlavi'>nDXn</span> (nihān): secret, concealed; نهان.
5. <span class='pahlavi'>rpn</span> (vafra): ice, snow, hail, sleet; برف.

# <span class='pahlavi'>f / i</span>

Sound: i, y, e, d, j, g

Modern Persian equivalents: ی، د، ج، گ

Notes:
1. In the body of a word it retains its form <span class='pahlavi'>f</span>
   before <span class='pahlavi'>n, i, b, k</span> as <span class='pahlavi'>y,
   I!, __B!, q</span> and <span class='pahlavi'>H!</span>; in all other cases it
   lapses into <span class='pahlavi'>i</span>.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>f</span> (ê or î): used as an izâfat اضافت to show
   relation between two words, as possessor and the person or a thing possessed,
   in which case <span class='pahlavi'>f</span> shows the genitive case.
3. Combines with all preceding letters except <span class='pahlavi'>n,\_
   b,\_k,\_t,\_c</span> and with all succeeding letters except <span
   class='pahlavi'>n,\_ b,\_Ë</span> where it takes the forms <span
   class='pahlavi'>y, \_\_B!,\_M!</span>.
5. <span class='pahlavi'>f</span> used as the numeral "one" when it follows a
   substantive, e.g. <span class='pahlavi'>f_aB!</span> (gabrâ-ê) a man; <span
   class='pahlavi'>f_TlË</span> (mart-ê) a man; مردی.
6. <span class='pahlavi'>i</span> used to represent numeral "one", e.g. <span
   class='pahlavi'>ZLi</span> (ê-raz): one hundred; یک صد, <span
   class='pahlavi'>KLi</span> (ê-rag): one thousand; یک هزار.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>N\_gE</span> (dîv): satan, Dev, a demon, an evil
   spirit; دیو.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>rFnp\_f\_rTXË</span> (mâtar-î-pûsar): mother of the
   boy; مادرِ پسر.
3. Using izâfat is optional, and when it is dropped, it is necessary that the
   qualifying adjective or the thing possessed must precede the thing possessed
   or qualified; e.g. <span class='pahlavi'>rTXË\_rFnp</span> (pûsar mâtar), and
   it is the rule that a <span class='pahlavi'>Q</span> (zak) or <span
   class='pahlavi'>fQ</span> (zak-î) is added before the two words, so: <span
   class='pahlavi'>rTXË\_rFnp\_fQ</span> (zak-î pûsar mâtar)
4. It is also used as a rendering of Avesta relative pronouns <span
   class='pahlavi'>OvjE</span>, <span class='pahlavi'>WvjE</span>, <span
   class='pahlavi'>TavjE</span>, who, which and what.

# <span class='pahlavi'>gE / F</span>

Sound: s

Modern Persian equivalent: س 

Notes:
1. The <span class='pahlavi'>gE</span> form of this letter is used when it is
   the final word of a simple word, or when that simple word is part of a
   compound word, e.g. <span class='pahlavi'>gEAr</span> (râs), <span
   class='pahlavi'>gEann</span> (vînâs), <span class='pahlavi'>Rak_gEann</span>
   (vînâs-kâr)
2. The <span class='pahlavi'>gE</span> form of this letter is also used when
   before <span class='pahlavi'> B,\_Ë,\_n</span>, e.g. <span
   class='pahlavi'>t_gE</span> (sût), <span class='pahlavi'>vH_gEA</span>
   (asmân)
3. The <span class='pahlavi'>gE</span> form of this letter is also used to
   represent the numerical cipher 40, forty <span
   class='pahlavi'>J\_\_\_A\_jEc</span> (chêhal); چهل

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>s|rF</span> (srôsh): one who obeys or hears; the name
   of the angel who protects mankind by night and day against the attacks of the
   Daevas, and guards the souls of the dead for the first three nights. He may
   be compared with Gabriel of Semitic mythology, as a principle messenger of
   God. He is always styled as <span class='pahlavi'>n b|rsA\_=\_s|rF</span>
   (srôsh-î-ahlôb): holy srosh; metaphorically means "obedience", "humility".;
   سروش.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>nvjXpF</span> (spâhân): The city of Ispahan, former
   capital city of Iran; اصفهان.

# <span class='pahlavi'>s</span>

Sound: š (sh)

Modern Persian equivalent: ش

Notes:
1. In Indian manuscripts this letter is generally given as <span
   class='pahlavi'></span>DE</span>, which can be read as š, dâ, gâ, jâ, yâ, ih.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>ivjX</span> (šûi): a husband; شوی، شوهر.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>nnTFvjX</span> (šôstan): to wash, to cleanse, to
   purify; شستن.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>anks</span> (šikôh): pomp, grandeur, majesty, dignity;
   شکوه.

# <span class='pahlavi'>a<span>

Sound: a, â, kh, h

Modern Persian equivalents: آ، خ، ه

Notes:
1. Can be used as a prefix, denoting "not" or negation, e.g. <span
   class='pahlavi'>gEA_nv</span> (a-vînâs): sinless.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>v</span> (hû): a prefix indicating "good", "well";
   opposite of <span class='pahlavi'>sy</span> (dûš) bad
2. <span class='pahlavi'>tËy</span> (hû-mat): good thought
3. <span class='pahlavi'>nvL_Ia</span> (aîrân): the home of the Aryans, the Iran
   proper; ایران.
4. <span class='pahlavi'>DEnTEa</span> (aêtîh): existence, being; هستی.

# <span class='pahlavi'> B</span>

Sound: b, ê

Modern Persian equivalents: ب، ی

Notes:
1. Can be added to words to mean "one", e.g. <span class='pahlavi'>f_TlË</span>
   (mart-ê) a man; مردی.
2. Does not combine with any succeeding letter, and only combines with preceding
   <span class='pahlavi'>i,\_s,\_a,\_r,\_Z</span>.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>nn B</span> (bûn): basis, root, beginning, bottom,
   foundation, extremity, end, origin; بن.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>En B</span> (bôî): to smell, fragrance , smell,
   perfume, scent; بو، بوی.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>nTFbM!</span> (ham-bast): bound together, connected
   together; هم‌بست.
4. <span class='pahlavi'>rTXrb / TXrb</span> (brâtar / brât): brother; برادر.

# <span class='pahlavi'>r</span>

Sound: r, l

Modern Persian equivalents: ر، ل

Notes:
1. Sometimes l is written as <span class='pahlavi'>J</span> to distinguish it
   from r, specially in Pazend.
2. At the end of some Semitic words it is written as <span
   class='pahlavi'>O</span>, e.g. <span class='pahlavi'>ODX</span> (akhar).
3. Used as the numerical cypher for number 20 (li = bist); بیست.
4. Used as the first person singular pronoun (li=men): I, me, my, mine; من.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>f|r</span> (rûi): face, feature, countenance; رو، روی.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>ODX_ny|r</span> (levîn-û-âkhar = pêš-pas): more or
   less, before and after, first to the last; کم و بیش، پیش و پس، اول تا آخر.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>Tl</span> (rat): lord, master, spiritual chief,
   principal, a Dastur or high priest;
4. <span class='pahlavi'>KR</span> (lagh / ragh): the numerical cypher for 1000;
   one thousand; هزار.

# <span class='pahlavi'>Z</span>

Sound: z

Modern Persian equivalents: ز

Notes:
1. Does not combine with any preceding letter but combines with all succeeding
   letters.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>|Z</span> (zan): a woman, a female, a wife; زن. The
   word is probably from the corresponding زادن or زائيدن (to give birth) from
   Avesta.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>i^|Z</span> (zand): great, vehement, powerful; زند.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>ajEqnyjz</span> (zîvandakîh): Abstract; life,
   existence; زندگی.
4. <span class='pahlavi'>RZ</span> (zar): gold; زر.
5. <span class='pahlavi'>kz</span> (zak): A semitic particle, extensively used
   in Pahlavi and signifying a Demon. Adjective and pronoun singular & plural:
   that, that one, also used in third personal pronouns: he, she or it,
   sometimes as a relative pronoun: that, which, who. The word is of frequent
   occurence and invariably replaces Iranian word <span
   class='pahlavi'>nv</span> (ân) آن. Also, as explained before, <span
   class='pahlavi'>kz</span> and <span class='pahlavi'>f_kz</span> are used in
   the beginning of a genitive construction where the izafat اضافت "<span
   class='pahlavi'>f</span>" is dropped and the thing possessed or qualified is
   placed after the possessor or the qualifying adjective, e.g. <span
   class='pahlavi'>n|rh\_r\_f\_kz</span> (zak-î-li-môrv): my bird.

# <span class='pahlavi'>k</span>

Sound: k, rarely g and y

Modern Persian equivalents: ک، گاهی گ، ی

Notes:
1. Generally used as a sign of past participle at the end of a verb in preterite
   form, e.g. <span class='pahlavi'>ktnk</span> کرده or <span
   class='pahlavi'>kTlB</span> برده.
2. It is also used as a diminutive suffix, e.g. <span
   class='pahlavi'>kR_Fnp</span> (pûsarak) پسرک.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>nnk</span> (kanû): now, at present, yet, still; کنون.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>Tlaktnk</span> (kûtak-khrat): short-witted, foolish,
   silly; کوته خرد.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>nnTEyk</span> (kînîtan): Denominative verb from <span
   class='pahlavi'>nyk</span> (kîn) malice; to bear malice to, to take revenge
   on; کین گرفتن.
4. <span class='pahlavi'>akk</span> (kakâ): a tooth, teeth; Semitic equivalent
   of <span class='pahlavi'>nvjEy</span> (dandân) دندان.
5. <span class='pahlavi'>Gk</span> (kam): less, little, small, a few, scarce,
   deficient; کم.
6. <span class='pahlavi'>knvb_ktk</span> (katak-banûk): the mistress of the
   house, mater-familias. کد بانو.
7. <span class='pahlavi'>wtv_ktk</span> (katak-khûtâi): the master of the house,
   pater-familias, a chief. کد خدا.

# <span class='pahlavi'>G</span>

Sound: m

Modern Persian equivalents: م

Notes:
1. Does not combine with preceding <span class='pahlavi'>n,\_
   B,\_k,\_t\_,\_p,\_c,\_K</span>
2. Even in its combined form, it keeps its full form, and it combines with all
   succeeding letters except <span class='pahlavi'>K</span>

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>f|_G</span> (mûy): hair; مو، موی.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>E*|_G</span> (mang): a narcotic drug made from
   hemp-seed, hen-bane, a drug used for abortion, Cannabis Sativa; منگ، بنگ،
   بنج.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>EnyG</span> (mînôy / mînúg): spiritual, heavenly,
   invisible, a spirit, a spiritual being; مینو، مینوی.
4. <span class='pahlavi'>nvMajX_G</span> (mâhmân): a guest, a visitor, one who
   is entertained; as adjective satisfied, pleased, gratified, agreeable,
   welcome; مهمان.
5. <span class='pahlavi'>nntG</span> (Mitra): the name of an Yazat: Meher Yazad;
   presiding over light, also over faith, friendship and contracts; مهر.

# <span class='pahlavi'>t</span>

Sound: t, d

Modern Persian equivalents: ت، د

Notes:
1. Does not join any succeeding letter, and does not join with preceding <span
   class='pahlavi'>n,\_f,\_k,\_t,\_p,\_c,\_K</span>.
2. Always appears whole in any formation.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>nnt</span> (tan): body, person, the corporal body as
   distinguished from <span class='pahlavi'>prk</span> the spiritual body; تن.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>E^nnt</span> (tanand): a spider, a cobweb; تتنده،
   تنندو.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>nnTEcnt</span> (tôjîtan): to atone for a sin, to
   expiate, to undergo punishment, to plunder, to assault; توزیدن.
4. <span class='pahlavi'>rkvbnt</span> (tûbânkar): rich, powerful, able,
   opulent, competent; توانگر.
5. <span class='pahlavi'>ajEvjfct_nv</span> (khûn-tachišnîh): flowing out of
   blood.

# <span class='pahlavi'>p</span>

Sound: pa, pha (if initial, also: cha, ja, za)

Modern Persian equivalents: پ، ف (اگر در ابتدا، همچنین: و، چ، ت، ز)

Notes:
1. Appears either as a whole, or as <span class='pahlavi'>P</span> when joining
   the previous letter.

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>nnp</span> (pavan = pa, pat): a semitic particle, used
   extensive as a preposition with meanings: to, by, from, through, according
   to, in, into, on, upon, with, among, about, at, for, as, as to, as if. It
   corresponds to Modern Persian پ، بر. It is the prefix for instrumental &
   genetive cases. e.g. <span class='pahlavi'>ODX_nnp</span> (pavan-âkhar =
   pa-pas): in the end, at last; پا پس.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>TFnp</span> (pûst): the skin, a hide, a covering, a
   coating; پوست.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>PXnp</span> (frâz): A preposition with the meaning of:
   forth, further, forthwith, on, upon, above, upwards, aloft, back, down,
   after, again, opposite, contrary, before, near, forward, together; فراز، فرا.
4. <span class='pahlavi'>E^|Znp</span> (frazand): an offspring, child, son,
   progeny; فرزند.
5. <span class='pahlavi'>nvGtp</span> (patmân): measure, standard, regulation,
   moderation, plan, design, rule, proportion, estimate, compact, agreement,
   (golden) mean, metrical measure; پیمان.


# <span class='pahlavi'>c</span>

Sound: ch, if initial: j, if medial or final: ch, j, z, zh, p, f, v

Modern Persian equivalent: چ، اگر ابتدا: ج، اگر میان یا انتها: چ، ج، ز، ژ، پ، ف،
و

Notes:
1. Does not combine with any of the succeeding letters
2. Combines with preceding <span class='pahlavi'>E,\_a,\_r,\_G</span> as <span
   class='pahlavi'>PE,\_Pl,\_PX,\_PG</span>

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>c</span> (cha): an enclitic particle, meaning: and,
   also, likewise, even, too, yet, else, always, added to the word it connects;
   when it follows a word ending in a consonant, the vowel (i) is conveniently
   added to the consonant, e.g. (nari-cha), (kasi-cha); sometimes the vowel (a)
   is added to the consonant (hasta-cha).
2. <span class='pahlavi'>E^nc</span> (chand): how much, how many, how long, of
   what length or duration, some, any indefinite quantity; چند.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>rA_yc</span> (chînâr): the poplar tree, plane tree, the
   sycamore; چنار.
4. <span class='pahlavi'>DEn_gEc</span> (chûnîh / chêgûnîh): abstract noun from
   <span class='pahlavi'>n_gEc</span> (chûn): quality, qualification,
   description, whereabouts, peculiarity; چگونگی = کیفیت.

# <span class='pahlavi'>K</span>

Sound: gh

Modern Persian equivalent: ق

Examples:
1. <span class='pahlavi'>KR</span> (lagh / ragh): the numerical cypher for 1000;
   one thousand; هزار.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>KG</span> (magh): a pit, a hole, a row or line of
   stones on which a "riman" or "contaminated" person sits successively during
   the ceremony of purification; مغاک، مغ.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>KG</span> (mogh / magh): a magi, a mobed, one who
   pratises magism; مغ.
4. <span class='pahlavi'> bDlKa</span> (aghriya / aghrâya): this word is derived
   from <span class='pahlavi'> B!rKa</span> meaning: top, head, summit,
   pertaining to top, pertaining to summit, topmost, of the first quality, the
   principal one.
5. <span class='pahlavi'>nvtKn</span> (vaghtân): a head (of a good being), as
   opposed to <span class='pahlavi'>rA__Gk</span> (kamâr) head of an evil being.

## Letters mixed

The table below shows how different letters mix together {% cite
kapadia1953glossary %}:

![Letter mix table](/img/pahlavi/letter-mix.jpg)

# Phrases & Words

1. <span class='pahlavi'>a_Gvv</span> (Aûhr-mazd): The Supreme Creator, Lord
   Ormazd, of Zoroastrian philosophy. Formerly read as Anhômâ.
2. <span class='pahlavi'>@</span> (Aharman) اهرمن، اهریمن, is the destructive /
   evil spirit in Zoroastrianism. The name is traditionally written upside down.
3. <span class='pahlavi'>rDX|rp</span> (frôhâr): the guardian angel or spirit, a
   spiritual prototype, traditionally <span class='pahlavi'>nvb|r</span> (rûbân)
   soul, and <span class='pahlavi'>rDX|rp</span> (frôhâr) are quite distinct.
   Ravan passes the Chinvat Bridge according to his or her deeds in this world,
   whilst fravashi is the sublime spirit which protects its counterpart in this
   world as a guardian angle. It is the highest of the five spiritual entities
   of which the human being is made up (ahu, daena, baodhang, urvan and
   fravashi). Also written <span class='pahlavi'>sa|rp</span>, <span
   class='pahlavi'>Ra|rp</span>; فروهر.
4. <span class='pahlavi'>N\_gE</span> (dîv): satan, Dev, a demon, an evil
   spirit; دیو.
5. <span class='pahlavi'>nvjfPE</span> (yazišn): to worship, part of Zoroastrian
   sacred texts known as Yasna: a sacrifical prayer with offerings of Hom; یسنا.
6. <span class='pahlavi'>ajEIaRDX</span> (ahlâyîh = aša): abstract noun for
   (ahlôb) righteous, i.e. truth, righteousness, holiness, sanctity, Asha; آشا.

### The Threefold Path of Asha

The three ethical pillars of Zoroastrianism, mentioned in Yasna Haptaŋhāiti یسنا
هفت هات (Y. 35.4) are rendered in Pahlavi as such:

<span class='pahlavi'>nvjfyGv</span> (humînišn): good thought (منش نیک)

<span class='pahlavi'>nvjfnnkv</span> (hukûnišn): good deeds (کنش نیک)

<span class='pahlavi'>nvjfiyv</span> (hugôîšn): good speech (گویش نیک)

Also see [HUMATA HŪXTA
HUVARŠTA](https://iranicaonline.org/articles/humata-huxta-huvarsta) for more
information.

# Common Persian Names

<span class='pahlavi'>M_AR_DXn</span> (vahârâm): name of the angel of victory,
popularly known as Behram Yazat; also the name of the 20th day of the
Zoroastrian month, over which Behram Yazat presides; the planet Mars is also
known by the same name; بهرام.

<span class='pahlavi'>s|rF</span> (srôsh): one who obeys or hears; the name of
the angel who protects mankind by night and day against the attacks of the
Daevas, and guards the souls of the dead for the first three nights. He may be
compared with Gabriel of Semitic mythology, as a principle messenger of God. He
is always styled as <span class='pahlavi'>n b|rsA\_=\_s|rF</span>
(srôsh-î-ahlôb): holy srosh; metaphorically means "obedience", "humility"; سروش.

<span class='pahlavi'>n|r_G</span> (Marva): name of the third of the goodly
created places by Ahura Mazd according to Vendidad I: the modern "Marv",
"Margvan" of the clasics; مرو، مهرو.

<span class='pahlavi'>PFIa_G</span> (mahest): the greatest, the grandest, the
highest, the longest; میهن.

<span class='pahlavi'>EnyG</span> (mînôy / mînúg): spiritual, heavenly,
invisible, a spirit, a spiritual being; مینو، مینوی.

<span class='pahlavi'>nvLp</span> (frakh / frakho): prosperous, auspicious; فرخ.

<span class='pahlavi'>G_YEajE</span> (yâsmen): a jasmine or jassemine, a kind of
flower; یاسمن.

<span class='pahlavi'>nnTefn</span> (vištâsp): one whose wealth consists of
horses; name of the king of the Kananian dynasty, during whose reign Zoroaster
propagated the Mazdayasnan religion; گشتاسپ.

<span class='pahlavi'>|_Gvn</span> (vohûman): of good mind, the supreme
intelligence, the Angel or personification of the good mind, Behman Ameshaspend;
بهمن.

<span class='pahlavi'>nvjfiDXn</span> (nîyânišn): praise, thanksgiving,
adoration, benediction, bowing to salutation, obligation; نیایش.

<span class='pahlavi'>nvLan</span> (vârân): rain; باران.

<span class='pahlavi'>nvjeEi</span> (gêhân): the world, the earth, the material
world, property, estate, also sometimes used in the sense of man-folds or
settlements; جهان، گیتی، گیهان.

<span class='pahlavi'>kajeEi</span> (sâyak): shade, shadow; سایه.

<span class='pahlavi'>nvjfiaTF</span> (stâyišn): to praise, to glorify; ستایش.

<span class='pahlavi'>TeEnpF</span> (spêndât): name of the son of King Vištâp
(Gustâsp), the Kiyanian king during whose reign Prophet Zoroaster flourished and
proclaimed the religion; اسفندیار.

<span class='pahlavi'>rTF</span> (star): a star, a constellation; ستاره.

<span class='pahlavi'>ajeE</span> (yazdân): an epithet of God, one worthy of
worship, praise, or sacrifice; یزدان.

<span class='pahlavi'>ajfyLi^</span> (daryûš): poor, indigent, a darvish, a
monk, a mendicant; درویش.

<span class='pahlavi'>rkkanv</span> (khunâkgar): singer, a minstrel; خنیاگر.

<span class='pahlavi'>nvH_gEa</span> (âsmân): the sky, the heavens, the
firmament; آسمان.

<span class='pahlavi'>nyjEaH_gEIa</span> (âsîm-âyîn): pertaining to silver;
سیمین.

<span class='pahlavi'>#wzTef</span> (šahrzâd): شهرزاد.

<span class='pahlavi'>PlnB__Ra</span> (Albôrz): name of the celebrated lefty
mountain-range of Persia, whose highest peak is Mt. Damavand, south of Caspian
Sea; may be read as (harburz); البرز.

<span class='pahlavi'>nvTeE~ab</span> (bâmdâtân): of the family of Bam-dat;
Bamdat was the ancestor of the family to which Mazdak, the notorious minister of
Kobad belonged, from (bâmdât) meaning day-break, dawn; بامداد.

<span class='pahlavi'>nvjfr</span> (Rašna): The angel Rašna presiding over truth
& justice and dealing cut reward and punishment at the chinvat Bridge; رشن،
رشنا.

<span class='pahlavi'>nnTFM_Ar</span> (ramišn): verb, to give joy, delight,
pleasure, cheer, joy, merriment; رامشن، رامش.

<span class='pahlavi'>i^|Z</span> (zand): great, vehement, powerful; a village,
a town, or a city, a borough, a district; a heretic, a non-believer in
Zoroastrian religion, a revolter against true religion; meaning or
interpretation of a text, commentary of Avesta text in Pahlavi, explanation,
interpretation; زند.

<span class='pahlavi'>TefnTlZ</span> (zartûšt): name of the prophet of ancient
Iran, whose creed is followed upto this day by Zoroastrians in India (Parsees)
and Iran, the prophet flourished during the reign of the old Kyanian monarch
Gushtaspa, who with his family was the first to accept Zoroastrianism; زرتشت،
زردشت.

<span class='pahlavi'>gEkvk</span> (kâûs): King Kaus, the second King of
Kayanian Dynasti; کاوس، کی کاوس.

<span class='pahlavi'>inyG</span> (mînôy): spiritual, heavenly, invisible, a
spirit, a spiritual being; مینو، مینوی.

<span class='pahlavi'>TERa|rG</span> (morvârît): a pearl; مروارید.

<span class='pahlavi'>pFs|rnp</span> (Pôrûšasp): a proper name, the name of the
father of Zarathustra, composite word of <span class='pahlavi'>s|rnp</span>
full, leaden with + <span class='pahlavi'>pFa</span> (asp) horse, that is to
mean, having a large flock of horses; پوروشسپ.

<span class='pahlavi'>kgX|rnp_/_w|rnp</span> (pûrnây / pûrnâîk): a full grown
young man, a young man of full age; بُرنا.

<span class='pahlavi'>TeEsip</span> (Pêšdât): the title of Hoshang, the King
next to Gayomard, whence his successors were called Pesdatyans until the
accession of Kari-Kavat, the founder of Kai or Kayanian dynasty. The word may
mean from <span class='pahlavi'>sip</span> before + <span
class='pahlavi'>TeE</span> created, or justice or creed-- those believing in the
creed, in vogue previous to that of Zoroaster, or previous rulers or
administrators, or first established (rulers); پیشداد.

<span class='pahlavi'>C|rip</span> (pîrûz): Successful, victorious; فیروز،
پیروز.

<span class='pahlavi'>gERap</span> (Pârs): The provice of Fars in Persia (Iran);
پارس.

<span class='pahlavi'>rsa|rp</span> (frôhâr): the guardian angel or spirit, a
spiritual prototype; فروهر.

<span class='pahlavi'>Efrp</span> (parîk): a winged figure, a fairy, a witch, a
sorceress; in Avesta it means a demoness, a creature of Angra-Mainyu, whilst div
is Masculine; پری.

<span class='pahlavi'>nnTErp</span> (Frêtûn): Feredun (proper name), the name of
an illustious monarch of the Pisdatyan family; فریدون.

<span class='pahlavi'>nvrp</span> (frakh): prosperous, auspicious; فرخ.

<span class='pahlavi'>PeEFDlp</span> (Frâsîâp): name of an unjust and tyrannical
Turanian King, who incessantly troubled Iran, and had an hereditory enmity with
the Kings of Iran; افراسیاب.

<span class='pahlavi'>DEvjelp</span> (frâhang): wisdom, learning, science,
knowledge, intellect; فرهنگ.

<span class='pahlavi'>kvPlp</span> (farjânak): wise, learned, noble, a wise man,
an honourable man; فرزانه.

<span class='pahlavi'>nvGtp</span> (patmân): measure, standard, regulation,
moderation, plan, design, rule, proportion, estimate, compact, agreement, golden
mean, metrical measure; پیمان.

# Persian Calendar Month Names

<span class='pahlavi'>nyjEl|rp</span> (Farvardîn): same as <span
class='pahlavi'>nyTl|rp</span> (farvartîn), belonging to Farvar or Fravashi, the
name of the 1st month & 19th day of every month of Zoroastrian Year; فروردین.

<span class='pahlavi'>tsfPXanatra</span> (arta vahišt): name of the second
Amahraspand (divine deity) in Zoroastrianism, "right"; اردیبهشت.

<span class='pahlavi'>ta#r|_Ga</span> (amôrtat): immortal, name of the sixth
Amahraspand (divine deity) in Zoroastrianism; مرداد.

<span class='pahlavi'>naba</span> (âbân): eighth month of the Zoroastrian
calendar; آبان.

<span class='pahlavi'>|_Gvn</span> (vohûman): of good mind, the supreme
intelligence, the Angel or personification of the good mind, Behman Ameshaspend;
بهمن.

<span class='pahlavi'>tGynpF</span> (spend-armat): name of an Amesha-spenta who
has special charge of the Earth and women: sometimes it is the mother Eart, it
is also the name of the 12th month of the year and also the fifth day of the
month of Zoroastrian Calendar; اسفند، اسپندارمد.

# Additional resources

- [Introduction to Pahlavi by Prods OKTOR SKJÆRVØ](/files/pahlavi/Pahlavi Primer
  - Prods Oktor Skjaerv.pdf): a great resource with introduction to grammar, a
  lot of words and full text translations.
- [Avestan Digital Archive](https://ada.geschkult.fu-berlin.de/): a search
  engine for manuscripts
- [Avesta - Zoroastrian Archives](avesta.org/): has some of the texts and other
  resources related to Avesta and Zoroastrianism
- [Persian to Pahlavi Dictionary by Bahram
  Farehvashi](/files/pahlavi/Persian-Pahlavi-Dictionary.pdf): a dictionary from
  modern Persian to Pahlavi (only includes transliterated Pahlavi)
- [Bundahiśn Dictionary by Mehrdad Bahar](/files/pahlavi/GL-bundahisn.pdf): a
  dictionary from Pahlavi to Modern Persian
- [Name'e Pahlavi: Self-taught Pahlavi by Fereydoon
  Janidi](/files/pahlavi/NPrg.pdf): A book for self-taught Pahlavi in Persian
- [Small Dictionary of Middle Persian](/files/pahlavi/ParsiMianeh.pdf): A small
  dictionary of Middle Persian words, along with their Modern Persian equivalent
  and transliteration
- [A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary by
  McKenzie](/files/pahlavi/A-Concise-Pahlavi-Dictionary.pdf): A small dictionary
  of Middle Persian words, along with their Modern Persian equivalent and
  transliteration
- [An Old Zand-Pahlavi Glossary by Hoshang Jamaspji
  Asa](/files/pahlavi/An-Old-Zand-Pahlavi-Glossary.pdf): An Avestan to Pahlavi
  dictonary
- [Parsi Anjoman](https://parsianjoman.org/): a website and community full of
  resources dedicated to preservation of Persian language

# References 

{% bibliography --cited %}