[Middle Persian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Persian), the successor of [Old Persian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Persian) from [Achaemenid Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire), was used by the [Sassanian Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_Empire) of Iran, and is the ancestor of Modern Persian, which is currently the official language of Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan. This language has been written using multiple scripts, including [Pahlavi script](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pahlavi_script), [Manichaean script](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manichaean_script) and [Pazend](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pazend). Here I aim to give a short introduction to Middle Persian using Pahlavi script, a script derived from [imperial Aramaic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic).
This language is written and read right-to-left, however in this blog post because the main body of text is English, the text is aligned on the left-side.
This blog post requires a browser that supports custom fonts, since I am using the [Khusro Pahlavi font](http://avesta.org/iranian-font/pahlavi.html). If you cannot see this blog post properly, a PDF version of this blog post is available [here]().
There are 14 primary letters in Pahlavi Vendidad, some of which are used for multiple sounds. First, let's look at each letter of the alphabet individually. The content of this section is derived mostly from {% cite kapadia1953glossary %}.
Notes: Joins with preceding <spanclass='pahlavi'>f, gE, s, a, l, Z</span> and <spanclass='pahlavi'>G</span>, but not with any succeeding letter. Pahlavi words ending with <spanclass='pahlavi'>t, c, p, k</span> and <spanclass='pahlavi'>n</span>, can optionally add an extra final <spanclass='pahlavi'>n</span>.
1. In the body of a word it retains its form <spanclass='pahlavi'>f</span> before <spanclass='pahlavi'>n, i, b, k</span> as <spanclass='pahlavi'>y, I!, __B!, q</span> and <spanclass='pahlavi'>H!</span>; in all other cases it lapses into <spanclass='pahlavi'>i</span>.
2.<spanclass='pahlavi'>f</span> (ê or î): used as an izâfat اضافت to show relation between two words, as possessor and the person or a thing possessed, in which case <spanclass='pahlavi'>f</span> shows the genitive case.
3. Combines with all preceding letters except <spanclass='pahlavi'>n,\_ b,\_k,\_t,\_c</span> and with all succeeding letters except <spanclass='pahlavi'>n,\_ b,\_Ë</span> where it takes the forms <spanclass='pahlavi'>y, \_\_B!,\_M!</span>.
5.<spanclass='pahlavi'>f</span> used as the numeral "one" when it follows a substantive, e.g. <spanclass='pahlavi'>f_aB!</span> (gabrâ-ê) a man; <spanclass='pahlavi'>f_TlË</span> (mart-ê) a man; مردی.
6.<spanclass='pahlavi'>i</span> used to represent numeral "one", e.g. <spanclass='pahlavi'>ZLi</span> (ê-raz): one hundred; یک صد, <spanclass='pahlavi'>KLi</span> (ê-rag): one thousand; یک هزار.
2.<spanclass='pahlavi'>rFnp\_f\_rTXË</span> (mâtar-î-pûsar): mother of the boy; مادرِ پسر.
3. Using izâfat is optional, and when it is dropped, it is necessary that the qualifying adjective or the thing possessed must precede the thing possessed or qualified; e.g. <spanclass='pahlavi'>rTXË\_rFnp</span> (pûsar mâtar), and it is the rule that a <spanclass='pahlavi'>Q</span> (zak) or <spanclass='pahlavi'>fQ</span> (zak-î) is added before the two words, so: <spanclass='pahlavi'>rTXË\_rFnp\_fQ</span> (zak-î pûsar mâtar)
4. It is also used as a rendering of Avesta relative pronouns <spanclass='pahlavi'>OvjE</span>, <spanclass='pahlavi'>WvjE</span>, <spanclass='pahlavi'>TavjE</span>, who, which and what.
1. The <spanclass='pahlavi'>gE</span> form of this letter is used when it is the final word of a simple word, or when that simple word is part of a compound word, e.g. <spanclass='pahlavi'>gEAr</span> (râs), <spanclass='pahlavi'>gEann</span> (vînâs), <spanclass='pahlavi'>Rak_gEann</span> (vînâs-kâr)
2. The <spanclass='pahlavi'>gE</span> form of this letter is also used when before <spanclass='pahlavi'> B,\_Ë,\_n</span>, e.g. <spanclass='pahlavi'>t_gE</span> (sût), <spanclass='pahlavi'>vH_gEA</span> (asmân)
3. The <spanclass='pahlavi'>gE</span> form of this letter is also used to represent the numerical cipher 40, forty <spanclass='pahlavi'>J\_\_\_A\_jEc</span> (chêhal); چهل
1.<spanclass='pahlavi'>N\_gE</span> (dîv): satan, Dev, a demon, an evil spirit; دیو.
2.<spanclass='pahlavi'>s|rF</span> (srôsh): one who obeys or hears; the name of the angel who protects mankind by night and day against the attacks of the Daevas, and guards the souls of the dead for the first three nights. He may be compared with Gabriel of Semitic mythology, as a principle messenger of God. He is always styled as <spanclass='pahlavi'>n b|rsA\_=\_s|rF</span> (srôsh-î-ahlôb): holy srosh; metaphorically means "obedience", "humility".; سروش.
2.<spanclass='pahlavi'>ODX_ny|r</span> (levîn-û-âkhar = pêš-pas): more or less, before and after, first to the last; کم و بیش، پیش و پس، اول تا آخر.
3.<spanclass='pahlavi'>Tl</span> (rat): lord, master, spiritual chief, principal, a Dastur or high priest;
4.<spanclass='pahlavi'>KR</span> (lagh / ragh): the numerical cypher for 1000; one thousand; هزار.
# <span class='pahlavi'>Z</span>
Sound: z
Modern Persian equivalents: ز
Notes:
1. Does not combine with any preceding letter but combines with all succeeding letters.
Examples:
1.<spanclass='pahlavi'>|Z</span> (zan): a woman, a female, a wife; زن. The word is probably from the corresponding زادن or زائيدن (to give birth) from Avesta.
5.<spanclass='pahlavi'>kz</span> (zak): A semitic particle, extensively used in Pahlavi and signifying a Demon. Adjective and pronoun singular & plural: that, that one, also used in third personal pronouns: he, she or it, sometimes as a relative pronoun: that, which, who. The word is of frequent occurence and invariably replaces Iranian word <spanclass='pahlavi'>nv</span> (ân) آن. Also, as explained before, <spanclass='pahlavi'>kz</span> and <spanclass='pahlavi'>f_kz</span> are used in the beginning of a genitive construction where the izafat اضافت "<spanclass='pahlavi'>f</span>" is dropped and the thing possessed or qualified is placed after the possessor or the qualifying adjective, e.g. <spanclass='pahlavi'>n|rh\_r\_f\_kz</span> (zak-î-li-môrv): my bird.
# <span class='pahlavi'>k</span>
Sound: k, rarely g and y
Modern Persian equivalents: ک، گاهی گ، ی
Notes:
1. Generally used as a sign of past participle at the end of a verb in preterite form, e.g. <spanclass='pahlavi'>ktnk</span> کرده or <spanclass='pahlavi'>kTlB</span> برده.
2. It is also used as a diminutive suffix, e.g. <spanclass='pahlavi'>kR_Fnp</span> (pûsarak) پسرک.
Examples:
1.<spanclass='pahlavi'>nnk</span> (kanû): now, at present, yet, still; کنون.
3.<spanclass='pahlavi'>nnTEyk</span> (kînîtan): Denominative verb from <spanclass='pahlavi'>nyk</span> (kîn) malice; to bear malice to, to take revenge on; کین گرفتن.
4.<spanclass='pahlavi'>akk</span> (kakâ): a tooth, teeth; Semitic equivalent of <spanclass='pahlavi'>nvjEy</span> (dandân) دندان.
5.<spanclass='pahlavi'>Gk</span> (kam): less, little, small, a few, scarce, deficient; کم.
6.<spanclass='pahlavi'>knvb_ktk</span> (katak-banûk): the mistress of the house, mater-familias. کد بانو.
7.<spanclass='pahlavi'>wtv_ktk</span> (katak-khûtâi): the master of the house, pater-familias, a chief. کد خدا.
# <span class='pahlavi'>G</span>
Sound: m
Modern Persian equivalents: م
Notes:
1. Does not combine with preceding <spanclass='pahlavi'>n,\_ B,\_k,\_t\_,\_p,\_c,\_K</span>
2. Even in its combined form, it keeps its full form, and it combines with all succeeding letters except <spanclass='pahlavi'>K</span>
2.<spanclass='pahlavi'>E*|_G</span> (mang): a narcotic drug made from hemp-seed, hen-bane, a drug used for abortion, Cannabis Sativa; منگ، بنگ، بنج.
3.<spanclass='pahlavi'>EnyG</span> (mînôy / mînúg): spiritual, heavenly, invisible, a spirit, a spiritual being; مینو، مینوی.
4.<spanclass='pahlavi'>nvMajX_G</span> (mâhmân): a guest, a visitor, one who is entertained; as adjective satisfied, pleased, gratified, agreeable, welcome; مهمان.
5.<spanclass='pahlavi'>nntG</span> (Mitra): the name of an Yazat: Meher Yazad; presiding over light, also over faith, friendship and contracts; مهر.
# <span class='pahlavi'>t</span>
Sound: t, d
Modern Persian equivalents: ت، د
Notes:
1. Does not join any succeeding letter, and does not join with preceding <spanclass='pahlavi'>n,\_f,\_k,\_t,\_p,\_c,\_K</span>.
2. Always appears whole in any formation.
Examples:
1.<spanclass='pahlavi'>nnt</span> (tan): body, person, the corporal body as distinguished from <spanclass='pahlavi'>prk</span> the spiritual body; تن.
2.<spanclass='pahlavi'>E^nnt</span> (tanand): a spider, a cobweb; تتنده، تنندو.
3.<spanclass='pahlavi'>nnTEcnt</span> (tôjîtan): to atone for a sin, to expiate, to undergo punishment, to plunder, to assault; توزیدن.
Modern Persian equivalents: پ، ف (اگر در ابتدا، همچنین: و، چ، ت، ز)
Notes:
1. Appears either as a whole, or as <spanclass='pahlavi'>P</span> when joining the previous letter.
Examples:
1.<spanclass='pahlavi'>nnp</span> (pavan = pa, pat): a semitic particle, used extensive as a preposition with meanings: to, by, from, through, according to, in, into, on, upon, with, among, about, at, for, as, as to, as if. It corresponds to Modern Persian پ، بر. It is the prefix for instrumental & genetive cases. e.g. <spanclass='pahlavi'>ODX_nnp</span> (pavan-âkhar = pa-pas): in the end, at last; پا پس.
2.<spanclass='pahlavi'>TFnp</span> (pûst): the skin, a hide, a covering, a coating; پوست.
3.<spanclass='pahlavi'>PXnp</span> (frâz): A preposition with the meaning of: forth, further, forthwith, on, upon, above, upwards, aloft, back, down, after, again, opposite, contrary, before, near, forward, together; فراز، فرا.
4.<spanclass='pahlavi'>E^|Znp</span> (frazand): an offspring, child, son, progeny; فرزند.
Sound: ch, if initial: j, if medial or final: ch, j, z, zh, p, f, v
Modern Persian equivalent: چ، اگر ابتدا: ج، اگر میان یا انتها: چ، ج، ز، ژ، پ، ف، و
Notes:
1. Does not combine with any of the succeeding letters
2. Combines with preceding <spanclass='pahlavi'>E,\_a,\_r,\_G</span> as <spanclass='pahlavi'>PE,\_Pl,\_PX,\_PG</span>
Examples:
1.<spanclass='pahlavi'>c</span> (cha): an enclitic particle, meaning: and, also, likewise, even, too, yet, else, always, added to the word it connects; when it follows a word ending in a consonant, the vowel (i) is conveniently added to the consonant, e.g. (nari-cha), (kasi-cha); sometimes the vowel (a) is added to the consonant (hasta-cha).
2.<spanclass='pahlavi'>E^nc</span> (chand): how much, how many, how long, of what length or duration, some, any indefinite quantity; چند.
3.<spanclass='pahlavi'>rA_yc</span> (chînâr): the poplar tree, plane tree, the sycamore; چنار.
1.<spanclass='pahlavi'>KR</span> (lagh / ragh): the numerical cypher for 1000; one thousand; هزار.
2.<spanclass='pahlavi'>KG</span> (magh): a pit, a hole, a row or line of stones on which a "riman" or "contaminated" person sits successively during the ceremony of purification; مغاک، مغ.
3.<spanclass='pahlavi'>KG</span> (mogh / magh): a magi, a mobed, one who pratises magism; مغ.
4.<spanclass='pahlavi'> bDlKa</span> (aghriya / aghrâya): this word is derived from <spanclass='pahlavi'> B!rKa</span> meaning: top, head, summit, pertaining to top, pertaining to summit, topmost, of the first quality, the principal one.
5.<spanclass='pahlavi'>nvtKn</span> (vaghtân): a head (of a good being), as opposed to <spanclass='pahlavi'>rA__Gk</span> (kamâr) head of an evil being.
